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1、types of sentence are used, what is their function?Sentence complexity: Do sentences on whole have a simple or a complex structure? What is the average sentence length? Does complexity vary strikingly from one sentence to another? Is complexity mainly due to (i) coordination, (ii) subordination, (ii
2、i) juxtaposition of clauses or of other equivalent structures? In what parts of the text does complexity tend to occur?clause types: What types of clauses are favoredrelative clauses, adverbial clauses, or different types of nominal clauses? Are non-finite forms commonly used, and if so, of what typ
3、es are they (infinitive, -ing form, -ed form, verbless structure)? What is their function?Clause structure: Is there anything significant about clause elements (eg frequency of objects, adverbials, complements; of transitive or intransitive verb constructions)? Are there any unusual orderings (initi
4、al adverbials, fronting of object or complement, etc)? Do special kinds of clause construction occur (such as those with preparatory it or there)? Noun phrases: Are they relatively simple or complex? Where does the complexity lie (in premodification by adjectives, nouns, etc, or in postmodification
5、by preposition by prepositional phrases, relative clauses, etc)?Verb phrases: Are there any significant departures from the use of the simple past tense? For example, notice occurrences and functions of the present tense, of the progressive aspect, of the perfect aspect, of modal auxiliaries.other p
6、hrase types: Is there anything to be said about other phrases types, such as prepositional phrases, adverb phrases, adjective phrases?Word classes: Having already considered major word classes, we may consider minor word classes (eg functional words), such as prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, de
7、terminers, auxiliaries, interjections. Are particular words of these types used for particular effect (eg demonstratives such as this and that, negatives such as not, nothing)?General: Note whether any general types of grammatical construction are used to special effect (eg comparative or superlativ
8、e constructions, coordinative or listing constructions, parenthetical constructions, interjections and afterthoughts as occur in causal speech). And see to the number of lists and coordinations.Figures of SpeechHere we consider the features which are foregrounded by virtue of departing in some way f
9、rom general norms of communication by means of the language code, for example, exploitation of deviations from the linguistic code. Grammatical and lexical schemes (foregrounded repetitions of expression): Are there any cases of formal and structural repetition (anaphora, parallelism, etc) or of mir
10、ror-image patterns (chiasmus)? Is the rhetorical effect of these one of antithesis, reinforcement, climax, anticlimax, etc?Phonological schemes: Are there any phonological patterns of rhyme, alliteration, assonance, etc? Are there any salient rhythmical patterns? Do vowels and consonant sounds patte
11、rn or cluster in particular ways? How do these phonological features interact with meaning?Tropes (foregrounded irregularities of content): Are there any obvious violations of or neologisms from the linguistic code? For example, are there any neologisms (such as “portentous infants”)? Are there any
12、semantic, syntactic, phonological, or graphological deviations? Such deviations are often the clue to special interpretations associated with traditional figures of speech such as metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, paradox, and irony. If such tropes occur, what kind of special interpretation is involve
13、d (for example, metaphor can be classified as personifying, animalizing, concretizing, synaesthetic, etc)?Context and cohesion Here we take a look at features which are generally fully dealt with in discourse analysis. Under cohesion ways in which one part of a text is linked to another are consider
14、ed; for instance, the ways sentences are connected. This is the internal organization of a text. Under context, roughly the material, mental, personal, interactional, social, institutional, cultural, and historical situation in which the discourse is made, we consider the external relations of the l
15、iterary text or a part of the text, seeing it as a discourse presupposing a social relation between its participants (author and reader, character and character, character and reader, etc.), and a sharing of knowledge and assumptions by participants.Cohesion: Does the text contain logical or other l
16、inks between sentences (eg coordinating conjunctions, linking adverbials), or does it tend to reply on implicit connections of meaning? What sort of use is made of cross-reference by pronouns (she, it, they, etc), by substitute forms (do, so, etc), or ellipsis? Is there any use made of elegant varia
17、tionthe avoidance of repetition by substitution of a descriptive phrase (as “the old lawyer” substitutes for the repetition of an earlier “Mr Jones”)? Are meaning connections reinforced by repetition of words and phrases, or by repeatedly using words from the same semantic field?Context: Does the wr
18、iter address the reader directly, or through the words or thoughts of some fictional character? What linguistic clues (eg first person pronouns I, me, my, mine) are there of the addresser-addressee relationship? What attitude does the author imply towards his/her subject? If a characters words or th
19、oughts are represented, is this done by direct quotation, or by some other method (eg indirect speech, free indirect speech)? Are there significant changes of style with respect to different persons (narrator or character) who is supposedly speaking or thinking the words on the page? What is the poi
20、nt of view of the story? Are the frequent shifts of point view? If so, in whose voice is the narrator speaking?Chapter Seven SymbolWhat is symbol?Symbol, in the simplest sense, anything that stands for or represents something else beyonditusually an idea conventionally associated with it. Objects li
21、ke flags and crosses can function symbolically; and words are also symbols. (P. 218. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms.) A symbol is a thing that suggests more than its literal meaning. It exists widely even in our daily life. Our language itself is symbol. The daily greetings indicate tha
22、t the passage of communication is open. Ring is a symbol of eternity. The sign of cross indicates atonement. The Big Ben symbolizes London, the Great Wall China. Ritualistic acts are symbolic. In church wedding the bride is handed over from the father to the groom. Holy eating is symbolic of communi
23、on, baptizing cleansing and rebirth. The raising and lowering of a national flag certainly suggest meanings larger than the acts themselves. And finally toasting and shaking hands on formal or informal occasions.As rhetorical device, symbol is different from metaphor, which is literally false but fi
24、guratively true. Unlike allegory, which represents abstract terms like “love” or “truth,” symbols are perceptible objects. In literature almost anythingparticular objects, characters, setting, and actionscan be symbolic if the author wishes to make it so by either hinting or insisting that the mater
25、ial means more than it literally does. Symbols are suggested through special treatment such as imagery, repetition, connotative language, or other artistic devices. In F. Scott Fitzgeralds novel The Great Gatsby, a huge pair of bespectacled eyes stares across a wildness of ash heaps from a billboard
26、 advertising the services of an oculist. Repeatedly appearing in the story, the bespectacled eyes come to mean more than simply the availability of eye examination. A character in the story compares it to the eyes of God; he hints that some sad, compassionate spirit is brooding as it watches the pas
27、sing procession of humanity. Such an object is a symbol: in literature, a symbol is a thing that refers or suggests more than its literal meaning. There are quite a lot of symbols that appear in ordinary life, for the use of symbol is by no means of limited to literature and art. For instance, a dov
28、e is a symbol of peace, the flag is the symbol of a country, and the cross is the symbol of the Christian religion. These are symbols adopted by a whole society and are recognized by all members of such a society. There are other kinds of symbols, such as figure 3, which may be abstract symbols. But
29、 symbols in literature works are different from either of the other types. Generally speaking, a literary symbol does not have a common social acceptance, as does the flag; it is, rather, a symbol the poet or the writer adopts for the purpose of his/her work, and it is to be understood only in the c
30、ontext of that work. It differs from the kind of symbol illustrated by the figure 3 because it is concrete and specific. A poet or a writer uses symbols for the same reason he/ she uses similes, metaphors, and images, etc: they help to express his/her meaning in a way that will appeal to the senses
31、and to the emotions of the reader. Most symbols, in literature and everyday life as well, possess a tremendous condensing power. Their focusing on the relationships between the visible (audible) and what they suggest can kindle it into a single impact. Of course, in literary works, symbols, unlike t
32、hose in ordinary life, usually do not “stand for” any one meaning, nor for anything absolutely definite; they point, they hint, or, as Henry James put it, they cast long shadows. SymbolismThe term symbolism refers to the use of symbols, or to a set of related symbols, which is one of the devices tha
33、t enrich short fiction and compensate for its briefness in space.2. There are two broad types of literary symbolsSymbol is generally acknowledged to be one of the most frequently employed devices in poetry. In works of fiction it is no less frequent and no less important. The fact is that, when a re
34、ader reads a work of fiction, his focus is mostly cast upon the plot, the character, and the language used, so that the symbols are automatically backgrounded on the readers part. But in some novels and stories, the symbolism looms so large that the reader will fail to get a comprehensive understand
35、ing of the work without paying special attention to the symbols. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is one of such works. The very title points to a double symbol: the scarlet letter A worn by Hester conveys a multiple of senses which differ greatly from what it literally stands for, and the
36、work eventually develops into a test and critique of symbols themselves. Thomas Pynchons V. continues along much the same line, testing an alphabetical symbol. Another example is Herman Melvilles Moby-Dick, in which the huge white whale in the title of the book acquires greater meaning than the lite
37、ral dictionary-definition of an aquatic mammal. It also suggests more than the devil, to whom some of the characters liken it. The huge whale, as the story unfolds, comes to imply an amplitude of meanings: among them the forces of nature and the whole universe.Literary symbols are of two broad types
38、: one type includes those embodying universal suggestions of meaning. Flowing water suggests time and eternity, a journey into the underworld and return from it is interpreted as a spiritual experience or a dark night of the soul, and a kind of redemptive odyssey. Such symbols are used widely (and s
39、ometimes unconsciously) in western literature. The other type of symbol secures its suggestiveness not from qualities inherent in itself but from the way in which it is used in a given work, in a special context. Thus, in Moby-Dick the voyage, the land, and the ocean are objects pregnant with meanin
40、gs that seem almost independent of the authors use of them in the story; on the other hand, the white whale is invested with different meanings for different crew members through the handling of materials in the novel. Similarly, in Hemingways A Farewell to Arms, rain, which is generally regarded as
41、 a symbol of life (especially in spring), and which is a mildly annoying meteorological phenomenon in the opening chapter, is converted into a symbol of death through the uses to which it is put in the work.3. Symbols in fiction are inanimate objectsOften symbols we meet in fiction are inanimate obj
42、ects. In William Faulkers “A Rose for Emily,” Miss Emilys invisible but perceptible watch ticking at the end of a golden chain not only indicates the passage of time, but suggests that time passes without even being noticed by the watchs owner. The golden chain to which it is attached carries sugges
43、tions of wealth and authority. Other things may also function symbolically. In James Joyces “Araby,” the very name of the bazzar, Arabythe poetic name for Arabiasuggests magic, romance, and The Arabian Nights; its syllables, the narrator tells us, “cast an Eastern enchantment over me.” Even a locale
44、, or a feature of physical topography, can provide rich symbolic suggestions. The caf in Ernest Hemingways “A Clean, Well-Lighted Place” is not merely a caf, but an island of refuge from sleepless night, chaos, loneliness, old age, the meaninglessness of life, and impending death. In some novels and
45、 stories, some characters are symbolic. Such characters usually appear briefly and remain slightly mysterious. In Joseph Cornards Heart of Darkness, a steamship company that hires men to work in Congo maintains in its waiting room two women who knit black woolthey symbolize the classical Fates. Such
46、 a character is seen as a portrait rather than as a person, at least portrait like. Faulkners Miss Emily, twice appears at a window of her houses “like the carven torso of an idol in the niche.” Though Faulkner invests her with life and vigor, he also clothes her in symbolic hints: she seems almost
47、to工程咨询资质工咨甲11820080058工程实验室建设项目资金申请报告山东省食品发酵工业研究设计院二一一年五月一、 项目摘要该项目建设,依托国家“城市配电网改造工程”和“新农村电气化工程”,针对非晶铁心变压器产品研发过程中的实验室基础设施瓶颈问题,建立和完善与企业发展相适应、具有国内领先水平的采用国产非晶铁心的高效节能变压器自主创新平台,为“十一五”国家科技支撑计划重点项目“采用国产非晶铁心的高效节能变压器研制”提供配套实验基础条件。项目总投资1966万元,新建工程实验室3000平方米,新增部分关键检测试验设备仪器及辅助设计软件,提高模拟分析试验能力,提高新产品的实验检测水平和开发成功率,
48、初步达到年产非晶铁心变压器200万kVA的中试生产规模,打破国外在关键核心技术上的垄断,提高我国在该领域的自主研发能力,推动行业技术进步,适应我国电力发展对高效节能非晶铁心变压器设备的急需。二、项目建设的依据、背景与意义1、项目建设的依据电力工业是国家经济发展战略中的重点和先行产业,输变电制造业是为我国电力工业提供制造装备的基础和支柱行业,其能力和技术水平,将直接关系到国民经济各相关行业的发展,对降低工业综合能耗,提高整个国民经济效益、实现增长方式的转变起着举足轻重的作用。变压器是输配电系统重要组成部分,在电力工业中占有十分重要的位置,截止到2008年底,我国拥有配电变压器约480万台,总容量
49、达16.6亿kVA,占到全国变压器总量的45%左右。众所周知,变压器是输变电行业中的耗能大户。据专业统计,我国输配电损耗占电力产量的比重高达7,这种状况使我国电力利用率降低,造成巨大的电力浪费。作为输变电行业中的耗能大户,降低变压器损耗已是我国节能工作的当务之急。随着我国经济的发展,基础建设的扩张,近年来,配电变压器的需求量和产量有较大的增长,年产量已达6000万kVA左右。因此节能型变压器的推广对于解决我国电力供应紧张,建立节约型社会有着重要意义,也是势在必行。配电变压器作为电力传输系统的重要设备,在我国使用量大面广、运行时间长,具有很大的节能潜力。随着节能降耗、落实科学发展观、转变经济增长方式、促进产业结构调整已成为全社会的共识,具有高效节能特点的非晶铁心变压器逐渐走到前台。非晶铁心变压器是用新型导磁材料非晶合金制作铁心而成的变压器,由于非晶合金是一种新型导磁性能突出的材料,采用快速急冷凝固生产工艺,其物理状态表现为金属原子呈无序非晶体排列,它与硅钢的晶体结构完全不同,更利于被磁化和去磁。它比硅钢片作铁心变压器的空载损耗可下